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Recall: PAP(s): A person is morally responsible for what they have done if they could have done otherwise. In the next section I present the case for PAP(s) as a maxim for moral accountability; arguing that it is just as informative to the task of ascribing moral responsibility as PAP. When discussing alternate possibilities, then, the notion of alternate possibilities should be understood to mean that there is at least one alternate possibility that is considered morally praiseworthy, or at the very least not immoral. The benefit to the nation, and the saving of American lives in the future, achieved by renouncing an early demonstration of nuclear bombs and letting the other nations come into the race only reluctantly, on the basis of guesswork and without definite knowledge that the "thing does work," may far outweigh the advantages to be gained by the immediate use of the first and comparatively inefficient bombs in the war against Japan. In 1923, the Journal was incorporated in the State of New York under its present name. b) 7388). At present, one could easily select in this country a hundred areas of five square miles each whose simultaneous destruction would be a staggering blow to the nation. Elzein, N. (2013). Frankfurt-style examples, responsibility and semi-compatibilism. Whatever E happens to be, it is congruent across the different worlds within each respective scenario: E is congruent across W1 and W2 within scenario 1 and congruent across W1 and W2 within scenario 2. June 14, 2022 . Correspondence to Also, we have arguably not yet made the progress toward seamless technological integration he had hoped for. Now, while PAP(s) is not necessary for the attribution of moral responsibility, it could be argued that the necessity of alternate possibilities nevertheless remains, as evidenced by the twin world condition. The metaphysics of free will. Instead, the role played by alternative possibilities in the twin world condition is more subjunctive, insofar as what is described is a possibility rather than an actuality. In R. Kane (Ed. Despite such objections, educators have continued to find Pedagogy of the Oppressed relevant and to adapt its arguments to their contemporary context. Contemporaries who agreed with Franck's argument for an international agreement would likely argue that nuclear weapons pose a global threat that cannot be addressed by individual states alone. The first major challenge to this interpretation was advanced in Germany in the 1960s, where the historian Fritz Fischer published a startling new thesis on the origins of the war which threatened to overthrow the existing consensus. The Philosophical Review, 104(2), 247261. FF: if he identifies, is wholeheartedly committed, it doesn't matter where it came from. In his original article, Frankfurt suggests that a twitch might be used to indicate that Jones is about to decide to do A (as opposed to no twitch for B). Reasons reactivity and incompatibilist intuitions. This item is part of a JSTOR Collection. Thomas M. Franck Murry and Ida Becker Professor of Law Emeritus Professor Franck graduated from the University of British Columbia with a b.a. By Charles Yu. in 1952 and an LL.B. I argue that PAP does not need to be endorsed as a necessary condition for moral responsibility and, in fact, presenting PAP as a sufficient condition maintains its usefulness as a maxim for moral accountability whilst avoiding Frankfurt-style counter-examples. 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. Question 10. Part of Springer Nature. Rjwala is your freely social learning platform. Which of the following arguments would a supporter of using nuclear weapons against Japan have. He can place his "infernal machines" in advance in all our major cities and explode them simultaneously, thus destroying a major part of our industry and a large part of our population, aggregated in densely populated metropolitan districts. We hope that the creation of the Committee by the Secretary of War to deal with all aspects of nucleonics, indicates that these implications have been recognized by the government. the informal advisers who work with the president to guide and shape their agenda, such a Why deck or double-deck or triple-deck the city streets at a cost of billions of dollars, only to invite increase and meet inevitable defeat? Wright asks of Le Corbusiers autostrades. Thus, from the "optimistic" point of view -- looking forward to an international agreement on the prevention of nuclear warfare -- the military advantages and the saving of American lives achieved by the sudden use of atomic bombs against Japan may be outweighed by the ensuing loss of confidence and by a wave of horror and repulsion sweeping over the rest of the world and perhaps even dividing public opinion at home. We believe that these considerations make the use of nuclear bombs for an early unannounced attack against Japan inadvisable. . Philosophia No paper agreement can be sufficient since neither this or any other nation can stake its whole existence on trust in other nations' signatures. Russia, and even allied countries which bear less mistrust of our ways and intentions, as well as neutral countries may be deeply shocked by this step. A New international organizations could have only a limited effect in restraining the actions of the great powers. The certainty that German scientists were working on this weapon and that their government would certainly have no scruples against using it when available, was the main motivation of the initiative which American scientists took in urging the development of nuclear power for military purposes on a large scale in this country. In 2005, world leaders formally adopted the Responsibility to Protect [R2P]the duty to intervene in when national governments fail to fulfill their r What is collective representation? Because of this, the original formulation of PAP is unnecessary. In contrast once again to Le Corbusier, Wright predicts that [t]he traffic problem will be solved as architecture. From this point of view, a demonstration of the new weapon might best be made, before the eyes of representatives of all the United Nations, on the desert or a barren island. German scientists, in whose discoveries the whole development of this field originated, apparently did not develop it during the war to the same extent to which this has been done in America: but to the last day of the European war, we were living in constant apprehension as to their possible achievements. c) What is Frankfurt's view on this? The answer to this question was given above -- the compelling reason for creating this weapon with such speed was our fear that Germany had the technical skill necessary to develop such a weapon and that the German government had no moral restraints regarding its use. In the absence of an international authority which would make all resort to force in international conflicts impossible, nations could still be diverted from a path which must lead to total mutual destruction, by a specific international agreement barring a nuclear armaments race. A postponement of such a demonstration will have in this case the advantage of delaying the beginning of the nuclear armaments race as long as possible. We believe that our acquaintance with the scientific elements of the situation and prolonged preoccupation with its world-wide political implications, imposes on us the obligation to offer to the Committee some suggestions as to the possible solution of these grave problems. However, in the past, scientists could disclaim direct responsibility for the use to which mankind had put their disinterested discoveries. (If FW requires whole-heartedness, what does this imply about decisions based on ambivalence? We have large accumulations of poison gas, but do not use them, and recent polls have shown that public opinion in this country would disapprove of such a use even if it would accelerate the winning of the Far Eastern war. Inherent within each of the aforementioned sufficient conditions is a role for alternate possibilities. Philosophia 44, 961969 (2016). There is, however, a subtle but important distinction between PAP in its original formulation as a necessary condition and the manner in which the notion of alternate possibilities is presented within the twin world condition. Further thoughts about a Frankfurt-style argument. Princeton University student: Conservatives are being shut down before they can even voice an opinion. The best possible atmosphere for the achievement of an international agreement could be achieved if America could say to the world, "You see what sort of a weapon we had but did not use. His dreams of a certain amount of land for each person have been realized to a point in American suburbs, but many of these bedroom communities lack the amenities on which Wright would have insisted. The scientists on this project do not presume to speak authoritatively on problems of national and international policy. positions that the constituents of several representatives hold in common. Article Many different political ideologies were represented in the Republic, Which statement best explains why many Germans became discontented with the Weimar Republic in the early 1930s-, Germany experienced widespread unemployment and inflated prices. We now consider the question of how an effective international control of nuclear armaments can be achieved. It has been suggested that a compulsory denaturation of pure fissionable isotopes may be agreed uponby diluting them, after production, with suitable isotopes to make them useless for military purposes, while retaining their usefulness for power engines. Contemporaries who agreed with Franck's argument in the second and third paragraphs regarding the need for an international agreement would most likely have made which of the following arguments to support their problem- The peace agreements should ensure that Germany could never threaten the stability of Europe again. Typically, we want to ascribe moral responsibility to Jones because he decided to carry out an act that, let us say, we judge to be morally reprehensible. [18] Personalize your stream and start following your favorite authors, offices and users. In the past, science has often been able to provide also new methods of protection against new weapons of aggression it made possible, but it cannot promise such efficient protection against the destructive use of nuclear power. What would have to occur in order for the twin world condition not to be satisfied? I follow this with a discussion on how PAP(s) is able to withstand the challenge set by Frankfurt-style scenarios, before moving on to consider a further sufficient condition for moral responsibility. Frankfurt, H. (1969). The essays were aimed at convincing opponents of the US Constitution to ratify it so that it . Contemporaries who agreed with Franck's argument for an international agreement would likely argue that nuclear weapons pose a global threat that cannot be addressed by individual states alone. Which of the following arguments would a supporter of using nuclear weapons against Japan have most likely cited to explain the limitations of Franck's arguments in the first and second paragraphs? Whether this would have been the case is evidenced by the congruence (or lack thereof) between E in W1 and W2. 231248). If this is the case, then we are in a position that is ultimately no different to the original formulation of PAP in which it is necessary that the subject could have done otherwise. (I focused on the second version). Perebooms Frankfurt case and derivative culpability. Csar Franck was born in Belgium but established his career as a composer, organist, and influential teacher in France, most prestigiously at the Paris Conservatoire and at the church of Sainte-Clotilde. The manner in which alternate possibilities are presented differs, though, within each of the sufficient conditions discussed. Why, according to Kane, does this example fail to show what Dennett thinks it shows? Art for Art's Sake is basically a call for release from the tyranny of meaning and purpose. Harry Frankfurt describes the principle of alternate possibilities (PAP) as follows: A person is morally responsible for what he has done only if he could have done otherwise (Frankfurt 1969, p.829; emphasis added). Why is this a problem for Frankfurt (and Watson?). in 1953. PubMedGoogle Scholar. Germany, he argued, bore the main share of responsibility for the outbreak of the war. Russia and China are the only great nations at present which could survive a nuclear attack. contemporaries who agreed with franck's argumentmarc d'amelio house address. - my will is free if it conforms with my second order desires (my will is my own). Widerker, D. (1995). An agent is morally responsible for performing a given act A only if he or she could have done otherwise. Russia is known to be mining radium on its own territory; and even if we do not know the size of the deposits discovered so far in the USSR, the probability that no large reserves of uranium will be found in a country which covers one-fifth of the land area of the earth (and whose sphere of influence takes in additional territory) is too small to serve as a basis for security. All external conditions required to enable alternate possibilities are satisfied. Nuclear bombs cannot possibly remain a "secret weapon" at the exclusive disposal of this country for more than a few years. Did Peter become the new captain\underline{\text{captain}}captain of the team? In the original Frankfurt paper, Jones is written as Jones4, owing the fact that at previous points in his paper, Frankfurt had discussed other versions of Jones (Jones 13). He then sets out, using his now famous counter-example involving Jones and Black, to show that PAP is false. Professor Franck editors. Therefore, an international agreement is necessary to ensure that nuclear weapons are only used for deterrence purposes and never deployed in a conflict. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in This further condition which I am calling twin world explains why we are still justified in assigning moral responsibility to an agent who fails to satisfy PAP in the manner described within Frankfurts counter-example. PAP(s) is not vulnerable to Frankfurts or similar counter-examples. Overall, Ralph Waldo claims that the true basis for self-reliance is connection between an individual and nature (which is also his inner voice) which is important for a that individuals intellectual, aesthetic, and moral health and development. If indeterminism is true, then nothing prior to the choice could indicate which way he will go. Willing addict is responsible for action but his will is not free. Question 38 options: If this race is inevitable, we have every reason to delay its beginning as long as possible in order to increase our head start still further. So he waits until Jones is about to make up his mind what to do, and does nothing unless it is clear to him (Black is an excellent judge of such things) that Jones is going to decide to do something other than what he wants him to do. Every attempt to impede the international control agencies would have to be considered equivalent to denunciation of the agreement. To explain, briefly: where the sign (which is different in different authors examples)Footnote 2 indicates to Black (or whoever or whatever is the counterfactual intervener) that Jones (or whoever it happens to be) is about to decide to do something contrary to Blacks wishes then Black intervenes, thereby limiting Jones decision to one possibility only, which is of course congruent with Blacks wishes. Garry Young. Ginet, C., & Palmer, D. (2010). Philosophical Studies, 166, 553573. 24 The Empowered Self, at 265-267. Among all the arguments calling for an efficient international organization for peace, the existence of nuclear weapons is the most compelling one. is a place where people live, work, and spend their time. Once this is achieved, the large installations and the accumulation of explosive material at present earmarked for potential military use will become available for important peacetime developments, including power production, large engineering undertakings, and mass production of radioactive materials. The first and perhaps the simplest way is to ration the raw materialsprimarily, the uranium ores. On the other hand, neither did Wright succeed in his wishes to rid our cities of skyscrapers and landlords (and in fact proposed his own mile-high skyscraper two decades later.) 13. You'll now receive updates based on what you follow! Just because a potential enemy will be afraid of being "outnumbered and outgunned," the temptation for him may be overwhelming to attempt a sudden unprovoked blow -- particularly if he should suspect us of harboring aggressive intentions against his security or his sphere of influence. We are fully aware of the staggering difficulties involved in such a radical change in the social and economic structure of our nation. This argument is one of the most widespread and powerful still being debated in academic and intellectual circles today, and it is important to understand it. As a role for alternate possibilities is necessary in some form for the ascription of moral responsibility, and as different forms of this role are inherent within the two sufficient conditions described above, what is necessary for the ascription of moral responsibility is that one of these aforementioned sufficient conditions is satisfied. PDF | On Sep 1, 2002, I. Scobbie published Tom Franck's Fairness | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate England, France and the smaller nations of the European continent, with their congeries of people and industries would be in a particularly desperate situation in the face of such a threat. "He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.". This new discovery had an immense amount of potential as a weapon of war. - 103.138.151.18. But E differs across the scenarios themselves: for it just so happens that S engages in an immoral act in (1) but a moral act in (2). It is clear shallow arguments appealing to culture and sovereignty, as well as Western clumsiness and hypocrisy, have shielded human rights abuses from scrutiny. Request Permissions. But if you look at their . rock creek ranch bc contemporaries who agreed with franck's argument. 21 Fairness, at 110. Most arguments for God's existence start from something we observe in the world that logically infer God as the cause of these observable effects (e.g. As is well documented, this scenario led Frankfurt to conclude that PAP is false because, intuitively, we want to assign moral responsibility to Jones in this situation even though clauses (a) and/or (b) are not met and so he could not have done otherwise: a necessary condition for moral responsibility under the original PAP. c) What is it supposed to show, and why? He decided to do this without the intervention of Black, and so made this decision oblivious to the fact that he could not have decided nor done other than he did. Such an agreement would also create a system of verification and disarmament that would prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and reduce the risk of nuclear war. If no efficient international agreement is achieved, the race for nuclear armaments will be on in earnest not later than the morning after our first demonstration of the existence of nuclear weapons. Franck's clearest contemporary statement on these matters comes from his oft-cited letter to John Campanus. Not three months later came Frank Lloyd Wrights rebuttal. Given mutual trust and willingness on all sides to give up a certain part of their sovereign rights, by admitting international control of certain phases of national economy, the control could be exercised (alternatively or simultaneously) on two different levels. It must be stressed that if one takes the pessimistic point of view and discounts the possibility of an effective international control over nuclear weapons at the present time, then the advisability of an early use of nuclear bombs against Japan becomes even more doubtful -- quite independently of any humanitarian considerations. Neither Le Corbusier nor Frank Lloyd Wright could truly be said to have won the argument played out in the 1930s newspaper, as both got some ideas right and many wrong. s the chief of staff. Debate has centred on whether the sign, which is not an indication of a decision, but an indication of what Jones is about to decide, nevertheless amounts to evidence that, on the occasion when the sign was present, an alternate possibility was available to Jones. Persons are 'wholhearted' when there are no conflicts in their wills and they are not ambivalent about what they want to do. Again, S fails to satisfy PAP(s) and the twin world condition, and so is not morally responsible for E, even though E is a good thing to have done in this case. Third parties often bring attention to topics that are unpopular or unknown. The twin world condition also avoids getting bogged down in the debate over whether the relationship between the sign and the decision is indicative of determinism or is indeterminate (Ginet and Palmer 2010; Robinson 2012; Shabo 2011). It is not necessary because, where alternate possibilities are not available (as in, a Frankfurt-style scenario akin to W1), and therefore S could not have done otherwise on a given occasion, one can still ascribe moral responsibility through an enforcement of the twin world condition. After such a demonstration the weapon might perhaps be used against Japan if the sanction of the United Nations (and if public opinion at home) were obtained, perhaps after a preliminary ultimatum to Japan to surrender or at least to evacuate certain regions as an alternative to their total destruction. While weve yet to see cars hurtling by unimpeded 16 feet above ground as Le Corbusier wished, various methods of separating cars from pedestrians have been attempted in cities around the world. Libertarian freedom and the principle of alternative possibilities. Moreover, PAP as a sufficient condition hereafter PAP(s) has the advantage of being able to withstand Frankfurt-style counter-examples without, I contend, losing its efficacy as a maxim for moral responsibility. Such a limitation would have the drawback of making impossible also the development of nuclear power for peacetime purposes. In this way, other nations may assume a share of responsibility for such a fateful decision. A nation able to assign 10 tons of atomic explosives for a sneak attack on this country, can then hope to achieve the destruction of all industry and most of the population in an area from 500 square miles upwards. Frankfurt Examples. Where neither is satisfied then S is not morally responsible for performing E. Frankfurt-style scenarios illustrate the condition under which PAP(s) is not satisfied. answer choices. Therefore, in making suggestions for the postwar organization of nucleonics, a discussion of political problems cannot be avoided. Neither architect lived to see their vision come true, but both were right about some aspects of their future, todays present. Putting all of this together, we can now see how each sufficient condition contains a different form of, and therefore a different role for, alternate possibilities. If an international agreement is not concluded immediately after the first demonstration, this will mean a flying start toward an unlimited armaments race. By making PAP sufficient rather than necessary for moral responsibility, it is still the case that anyone who satisfies (a) and (b) is held to account, morally. 95110). An example of this would be a form of Sophies choice whereby S is ordered at gun point to kill one of his two children. Young, G. The Principle of Alternate Possibilities as Sufficient but not Necessary for Moral Responsibility: A way to Avoid the Frankfurt Counter-Example. The only reason to treat nuclear power differently from all other developments in the field of physics is the possibility of its use as a means of political pressure in peace and sudden destruction in war. honoris causa by the University of British Columbia. Therefore, only lacks of mutual trust, and not lack of desire for agreement, can stand in the path of an efficient agreement for the prevention of nuclear warfare. Where S satisfies PAP(s), S is morally responsible for E; where this is not the case then S should still be ascribed moral responsibility if the twin world condition is satisfied. The disagreement began on January 3, 1932, when Le Corbusier published an article in The Times which ran under the title A Noted Architect Dissects Our Cities Le Corbusier Indicts Them as Cataclysms and Describes His Ideal Metropolis. Discussing cities like Paris, New York, and Chicago, Le Corbusier explains his vision for what we know today as Ville Radieuse, which he calls in the article the Green City. SUMMARY OF THE ARGUMENT In our constitutional democracy, all persons who reside within the United Statesincluding Blumenfeld, D. (1971). A. At present, it may be that atomic bombs can be detonated with an effect equal to that of 20,000 tons of TNT. In the context of Frankfurts scenario, which I am equating to W1, it is made clear that Jones did what he did irrespective of Blacks wishes, and therefore without the need for Blacks intervention. Riding somewhat roughshod over this debate and allowing that the sign does not indicate an alternate possibility (and therefore a flicker of freedom) because we do not need it too the twin world condition requires a comparison between S (or Jones or whoever) in W1 (where we allow no alternate possibility to exist) with S in W2 (where alternate possibilities incontrovertibly exist). In addition, I provide a further sufficient condition for moral responsibility the twin world condition and argue that this provides a means of justifying why the protagonist in Frankfurt-style scenarios (e.g., Jones) is still felt to be morally responsible. The twin world condition is likewise not necessary because one may not be required to compare Ss action in W1 with W2, owing to the fact that S is not performing E in a world without alternate possibilities (e.g., W2); in which case, PAP(s) applies.